Items to identify patients with life- threatening illnesses who are at high risk of aberrant opioid medication-taking behaviours | Alcoholism using validated tools (ie, CAGE, Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Testalcohol screening tool) | Young age (18–24 years old) | 18 (82) | 22 |
History of non-medical drug use (ie, cocaine) | Older age (65 years or older) |
Current non-medical drug use | Alcohol family history |
History of injection drug use | History of tobacco use |
Current injection drug use | Current tobacco use |
Post-traumatic stress | Depression |
Sexual abuse history | Anxiety |
Criminal record(s) related to substance use disorders | Personality disorders |
| Somatisation | | |
| Premorbid chronic pain |
| Unstable housing |
| Financial instability |
Items to identify patients with life- threatening illnesses who are at high risk of opioid overdose | Benzodiazepine use (ie, lorazepam) | Older age (65 years old and greater) | 17 (81%) | 21 |
Alcohol use | Renal impairment |
History of previous opioid overdose | Liver impairment |
Receiving opioid prescriptions from two or more physicians | Muscle relaxant use (ie, cyclobenzaprine) |
History of substance use disorder | Sleep medication/hypnotic use (ie, zopiclone) |
Active substance use disorder | Methadone use for pain management |
| Methadone use for opioid use disorder management |
| Opioid-naïve patients | | |
| Untreated psychiatric conditions (ie, schizophrenia) |
| History of obstructive sleep apnoea |
| Filling opioid prescriptions at two or more pharmacies |